Problem:

Question 1: Whereas ventilation and walking are enabled by central pattern generators, these terms mean different things in different places. In the case of walking, is the pattern generator neuron- or information-based? (a) neuron-based, or (b) information-based.

Question 2: In the case of breathing, neurons serve as a pattern generator. Where are these neurons within body space? (a) motor cortex, (b) brainstem, or (c) spinal cord.

Question 3: Breathing is enabled by premotor neurons whose axons project through the bulbospinal tracts. These axons project towards spinal cord: (a) ?-motor neurons, (b) ?-motor neurons, or (c) autonomic motor neurons.

Question 4: Inhalation is enabled by a ramp signal. This term denotes: (a) action potential shape, (b) a series of action potentials, or (c) a series of action potentials transmitted with increasing frequency.

Question 5: In mammals, the diaphragm is the skeletal muscle that enables inhalation at rest. Exhalation is induced by cessation of the ramp signal followed by elastic recoil. The diaphragm is a domed, musculotendinous sheet separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Does acetylcholine secretion stop within the diaphragm when the ramp signal ends? (a) yes, or (b) no.

Question 6: Our case study began with our model animal eating a goat. The case study ended with it eating a human. Therefore, the animal was hungry throughout the case study. Hunger is a form of motivated behavior, and the hypothalamus plays a key role in all forms of motivated behavior. A hungry animal behaves the way it does for underlying reasons. Which one is incorrect? (a) orexigenic neurons become disinhibited, (b) bloodstream leptin decreases as ghrelin increases, or (c) hypoglycemia.

Question 7: The table shown below outlines fuel reserves in a 70-kg human. Note that carbohydrate denotes glucose within the bloodstream but glycogen elsewhere. Note that blood plasma

Available Energy (kcal)

is devoid of mobilizable protein even though it contains 2.5 mM protein. Is this because blood plasma proteins enable multiple vital functions? (a) yes, (b) no.

Question 8: The pattern within the table above applies to vertebrates at large. What is the primary energy reserve within a post-absorptive animal? (a) carbohydrate, (b) mobilizable protein, or (c) fatty acids.

Question 9: Bloodstream glucose is not consumed uniformly in cells throughout the body. This means that bloodstream glucose changes little as blood flows though some organs but is depleted as it flows through others. Identify a primary consumer of glucose in a post-absorptive animal: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) CNS, (c) heart, or (d) liver.

Question 10: If arterial [glucose] is not stabilized, then how soon can hypoglycemia develop? (a) seconds to minutes, (b) minutes to hours, or (c) days to weeks.

Question 11: The means by which arterial [glucose] is stabilized varies with time. What serves to stabilize arterial glucose immediately after a meal has been digested, nutrients absorbed, and then allocated to storage sites? (a) hepatic glycogenolysis, (b) muscle glycogenolysis, or (c) hepatic gluconeogenesis.

Please read all the questions carefully and answer them.