Question: For years, Microsoft endured many more problems with computer viruses than Apple. Apple enthusiasts attribute that to their belief that Apple developers write higher-quality code. That might be true, but the recent success of viruses for Apple products indicates there could be another reason: Hackers write code where the money is; as long as Windows had a vastly greater market share than the Mac, it was far more lucrative to write against Windows. But with the popularity of Apple's devices... First, let's be clear about what problems exist. Malware is a broad category of software that includes viruses, spyware, and adware:

•  Viruses: A virus is a computer program that replicates itself. Unchecked replication is like computer cancer; ultimately, the virus consumes the computer's resources. Furthermore, many viruses also take unwanted and harmful actions. The program code that causes the unwanted actions is called the payload. The payload can delete programs or data-or, even worse, modify data in undetected ways. Imagine the impact of a virus that changed the credit rating of all customers. Some viruses publish data in harmful ways-for example, sending out files of credit card data to unauthorized sites.

¦ Trojan horses: Trojan horses are viruses that masquerade as useful programs or files. The name refers to the gigantic mock-up of a horse that was filled with soldiers and moved into Troy during the Trojan War. A typical Trojan horse appears to be a computer game, an MP3 music file, or some other useful innocuous program.

¦ Worms: A worm is a virus that propagates using the Internet or other computer network. Worms spread faster than other virus types because they are specifically programmed to spread. Unlike nonworm viruses, which must wait for the user to share a file with a second computer, worms actively use the network to spread. Sometimes, worms so choke a network that it becomes unstable or unusable.

•  Spyware: Spyware programs are installed on the user's computer without the user's knowledge or permission. Spyware resides in the background and, unknown to the user, observes the user's actions and keystrokes, monitors computer activity, and reports the user's activities to sponsoring organizations. Some malicious spyware captures keystrokes to obtain user names, passwords, account numbers, and other sensitive information. Other spyware supports marketing analyses such as observing what users do, Web sites visited, products examined and purchased, and so forth.

• Adware: Adware is similar to spyware in that it is installed without the user's permission and that it resides in the background and observes user behavior. Most adware is benign in that it does not perform malicious acts or steal data. It does, however, watch user activity and produce pop-up ads. Adware can also change the user's default window or modify search results and switch the user's search engine. For the most part, it is just annoying Because of Apple's inexperience in dealing with malware, its response to events so far has been ham-handed. In April 2012, a Trojan horse called Flashback infected more than 650,000 Macs. The problem was discovered and reported by the Russian firm Dr. Web and, according to Boris Sharov, Dr. Web's CEO, "attempts to warn Apple about Flashback went unheeded." In fact, Apple asked that one of the sites Dr. Web had set up to trap the virus be shut down. Apple finally fixed the problem...6 weeks after Microsoft had fixed it on Windows machines.5 With the rise in popularity of Apple products, it seems likely that Apple had better get ready for an avalanche of attacks. Willie Sutton knows why. And, alas, apparently Willie never made that statement; it's just an urban legend.

1. Payloads that damage users' files and steal data for malicious purposes are clearly illegal. But what about adware and spyware that cause no damage or loss? Are they illegal? Explain your answer.

2. Do you think there is such a thing as harmless spyware? If so, define it. If not, say why not.

3. Is spyware or adware unethical? Why or why not?

4. When a vendor such as Microsoft or Apple learns of malware, how should it respond? Does it have a legal responsibility to warn users? Does it have an ethical responsibility to do so? Does your answer depend on the actions of the malware's payload? Why or why not?

5. Given the Sutton principle, do you think a small company can ethically decide not to pay attention to computer security because it's small? "No one would want to sue us because we don't have assets that make it worth their while. Same for stealing our data." Do you agree with that attitude? As you answer, keep in mind that resources are always scarce at small companies. On the other hand, even though they are small, they could be storing your credit card data.

6. Suppose your professor installs spyware on the personal computers and mobile devices that you bring to class. The spyware records all of the text messages and emails that you send while in class, and it records all of the sites you visit and all of the terms for which you search. Like all spyware, you have no idea that it has been installed on your devices. Under which, if any, of the following circumstances is your professor's action unethical?

a. She uses the data for a research project on how today's students spend class time.

b. She uses the data to determine which parts of her presentation are least interesting to students.

c. She uses the data to decide how serious you are about the class and how, ultimately, to grade you.

d. She uses the data for faculty meeting entertainment. "You won't believe what my student Jamie Anderson searched for today. Listen to this..."

e. She uses the data to blackmail you

7. Examine your answers to question 6 and state your guideline(s) concerning the ethics of spyware.