Review Questions

Rehearsal Pathway & Long-Term Memory (LTM) Structure -

What is the difference between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?  When would one want to engage in just maintenance rehearsal?

How can one avoid the illusion of learning?

How can one ensure elaborative processing -- being able to overcome the serial position effect?

What is the main thrust of the Levels of Processing Theory?  How do we create deeply processed codes?

What are the limitations of the Levels of Processing Theory?

What contributes to the success in creating LTM codes according to the Transfer Appropriate Processing Theory?  Which type of processing will most often create a LTM code according to this theory?

What contributes to the success in creating LTM codes according to the Dual Code Hypothesis?

Why is it important to increase personal meaningfulness in learning?

Can you describe the "cohesion" process and identify what factors influence this process?

Can you describe the various mnemonic techniques for encoding information?  Can you take a list of unrelated words and demonstrate how you would process the list using each of the techniques?

What are the key characteristics (properties) of LTM?

What is meant by lexical access and how might we view LTM as a lexicon (encyclopedia)?

What is the main difference between STM and LTM?

What is the difference between implicit and explicit memories?  How can various types of knowledge be learned implicitly and explicitly?

Can you distinguish between episodic and semantic memories?  Why might semantic memories be more beneficial to the learner?

What is meant by "priming?"  How does priming lead to the Propaganda Effect?

Can you distinguish between declarative and procedural knowledge?  Can you give examples of both types of knowledge and of learning activities that use both types of knowledge?

How are procedures represented?  Can you take a procedure and create a production system with flow of control?

Why would we want to compose a production system?  How do we compose a production system and what is the risk in composing a production system (e.g., Einstellung Effect)?

Representations of Conceptual Knowledge -

What are the two key elements of conceptual categories?

In what ways can features of a concept be related?  Can you give practical examples of concepts using each rule?

How are natural conceptual categories different from concepts used in laboratory experiments (artificial concepts)?  Why do we study artificial concepts?

How does specific knowledge and training affect the level of category at which we typically process information?

What evidence is there that we create and use prototypes in processing conceptual information?

How do prototypes lead to pseudo memories?

What are the differences and similarities between prototypes and exemplars (as proposed in Rosch's Exemplar Theory)?

Can you describe the TLC Model (including the idea of hierarchical representation with the two types of links connecting concepts, the idea of cognitive economy, and fanning and intersection searches)?  Why was this approach replaced by the spreading activation model?

Can you describe the Feature Overlap Model and how links are created between concepts?  How does this model account for the category-size effect?  What are the limitations of this model?

How does the Spreading Activation Model explain the role of experience?  What is meant by "pre-stored knowledge?" What tends to influence the spread of activation?

Taking concepts such as house, bedroom, kitchen, and cooking; can you build different conceptual networks based on the perspectives of the three network models?

How are semantic networks related to and different from connectionist theories (particularly in terms of how the links function)?

How is a schema different from other knowledge representations? What are the typical characteristics of a schema and how do these influence learning and representation of knowledge?

What is the relationship between script and schema?

Representations of Imageral Knowledge -

How do we know that images are fundamentally different from conceptual knowledge?

What evidence can you provide that suggests that images initially begin as analog representations?

How are images formed in our mind?  How do they change as we continue to process and determine the meaning of the image?

What is an internally-generated image?  How is it similar and different from images formed from perceptions of the environment?

What does the experiment using ambiguous figures (e.g.,  duck/rabbit  or martini/bikini) tells us about images?

What is a cognitive map and what are its characteristics?

What is meant by the term "egocentric map?"

What can we conclude about images based on Shepard's experiments?

What is the main finding from the image scanning experiments?

What is true of how we compare images?

What is the main premise of Pavio's Conceptual Peg Hypothesis?

How can we use images to increase memory?  Why is imaging an important component of learning?

What are some limitations of using imagery to remember information (i.e., concrete vs. abstract information)?

What do we know about auditory images?  How do they compare to visual images?

Retrieval Pathway -

What are retrieval cues and why are they important in activating knowledge?

Can you explain the Tip of the Tongue phenomenon? How does it relate to spreading activation?

What are the differences between recognition and recall in retrieval of information?

What is the principle of encoding specificity  and how does it influence retrieval?

Can you give an example of State dependent learning?  Why might the term "mood congruence" be a better description?

Why might we fail to retrieve a memory?  If we can't retrieve it, how do we know it is there?

How does Decay Theory account for forgetting?  What evidence supports and refutes this theory?

How are flashbulb memories different from regular memories?  When are we likely to experience a flashbulb memory?

Can you describe how interference can cause problems with retrieval? Can you distinguish between proactive and retroactive interference?  When have you experienced interference and how do you know it was interference (i.e., did you experience "release from interference?")?

When and how do memories become repressed?  What would lead to recovery of a repressed memory?

Why do we have to sometimes reconstruct memories?  How do we reconstruct them?  What memory errors do we risk in reconstructing a memory?

What is meant by construction of memories and how does this influence what we will retrieve?  How is construction different from reconstruction?

What are inferential intrusion errors and when are they most problematic in influencing memory?

Why do misconceptions and misattributions occur?

When do errors in source monitoring become most problematic?

Can you describe the Misinformation Effect?   What reasons have researchers given for the effect?   How can you use the Cognitive Interview to overcome the effect?

When and how do false memories occur? Can you think of any false memories that you have experienced?

How do problems with memory validity lend credence to constructivists' views that what we know of the world may not correspond with reality?

Can we ever fully trust our memories?  How does time play a role in the "trustworthiness" of our memories?