I. What is “critical thinking”?

A. “A set of thinking skills used to help you actively solve problems, understand complex concepts, and develop well-informed opinions.” (Alvarado, p. 2)

B. “The art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.” (Paul & Elder, p. 2)

C. We all engage in critical thinking in those things that matter to us. About what are you the “expert” among your friends? Movies? Music? The latest technology (cell phones, computers, etc.)? Fashion? Sports? Whatever it is, chances are your friends turn to you for advice because you use critical thinking skills to develop informed opinions in this area.

II. What critical thinking is not

A. Critical thinking is not “negative” thinking. It’s not about finding fault, but about differentiating the good from the bad, the sound from the unsound, whether it’s ideas or fashion.

B. Think about the role of movie, music, or food critics. They don’t just tell us what’s bad and not worth the money. They also identify the best buys in terms of movie tickets or computer programs.

III. Basic Definitions

With any endeavor, it is important that we develop a common vocabulary.

A. Active vs. passive thinking (Alvarado, pp. 4-5)

1. Passive thinking/learning – you accept whatever you hear. Your goal is to memorize answers. What’s going to be on the test? End of semester = brain dump.

2. Active thinking/learning – involves questions. What is the speaker’s/author’s point of view? What is their goal? How does this information match my experiences? How might I use this information in the future?

3. The act of “discriminating”—Discriminating means differentiating, categorizing, identifying bad, better, best.

a. “Discrimination” has become a negative word, and discrimination is a negative, harmful action when it takes place without a sound basis for the differentiating or categorizing taking place. Giving A-grades just to individuals who are short, without regard to their effort or performance in class, is harmful discrimination. It is also the very opposite of active, critical thinking.

b. Critical thinking requires us to “discriminate” or “differentiate” based on solid evidence and logical reasoning. Students who do not attend class, miss quizzes, fail to turn in assignments, and do poorly on the exams will earn bad grades . . . regardless of how tall or short they are. Your decision to avoid a store where the employees provide poor service and the goods are often damaged is discrimination based on sound, logical reasons.

B. Knowledge vs. beliefs (Alvarado, pp. 6-7)

1. Knowledge (facts). What can be proven by an independent party?

2. Beliefs (opinions). Impossible to prove beyond a doubt.

Opinions can be informed and well-reasoned, even in cases where we disagree.

C. Personal perspectives, biases, points of view (Alvarado, pp. 5-6)

1. We all have biases and approach problems from an individual perspective. Our individual points of view come from our personal backgrounds, education, experiences, the religions and cultures in which we grew up, our beliefs and values.

2. While no one can be totally objective in approaching problems, we can become more conscious of our personal biases. This can help us know when it is particularly important to listen to and understand the positions of others who have different backgrounds and experiences.

3. Being able to accept that others’ perspectives may provide them with valid insights—even when they differ from yours—is an important step toward becoming an accomplished critical thinker.

IV. Critical thinking goals or guidelines (Alvarado, p. 16)

A. Be curious

B. Know where you stand on a subject

C. Identify and acknowledge your strengths, limitations, and biases

D. Avoid coming to a conclusion until you have sufficient knowledge. Base your conclusions on sound reasoning and solid evidence.

E. Listen to others’ perspectives, even if they are unpopular

F. Hold yourself and others to high intellectual standards

G. Be persistent. The truth is not always easy to find.

H. Strive to develop (Paul & Elder, pp. 14-15)

1. Intellectual humility, not arrogance

2. Intellectual courage, not cowardice

3. Intellectual empathy, not narrow-mindedness

4. Intellectual autonomy, not conformity

5. Integrity, not hypocrisy

6. Perseverance, not laziness

7. Fair-mindedness, not unfairness

8. Confidence, not distrust, in reason and evidence

V. Avoiding common fallacies (Alvarado, pp. 32-33)

Fallacies are support for an argument based on false or inadequate reasoning. Sometimes fallacies are introduced into a discussion in a deliberate attempt to mislead the listener. Other times they are simply the result of sloppy, passive thinking. Learn to recognize them in your own reasoning—and when others introduce them into a discussion.

A. Ad hominem attacks—attacks on the character or some other characteristic of an opponent, instead of the issue at hand

B. Ad populum (bandwagon)—argument that something must be right (or wrong) because “everyone else” says it is right (or wrong)

C. Red herring—evidence that is irrelevant or misleading, thrown into an argument to take the listener’s/reader’s attention away from the question being addressed

D. Either-or—characterizing a problem as having only two possible solutions, preventing the listener/reader from recognizing that other, better solutions may exist

E. Guilt by association—individuals are judged by the people with whom they associate

F. Slippery slope—designed to evoke fear. If we let this one thing happen, then there’s no stopping a whole list of other events that lead to disaster

VI. Solving a problem (Alvarado, pp. 19-21)

A. Define the problem or question

What kind of problem or question is it? (Paul & Elder, p. 16)

1. One system problem

a. Requires evidence & reasoning within the system

b. One correct answer

c. Knowledge

d. Scientific research

2. Multi-system problem

a. Requires evidence & reasoning within multiple systems

b. There are better and worse answers

c. Judgment

d. “Should” questions

3. No system problem

a. Calls for stating a subjective preference

b. A subjective opinion

c. “Correctness” cannot be consistently assessed

d. Best band, restaurant, etc.

B. Discover alternatives

1. Why is there a problem?

2. Who is involved?

3. What are the constraints or limitations?

C. Assess the pros & cons of possible alternatives

D. Propose a solution

E. Evaluate the solution

VII. Evaluating an argument (Alvarado, pp. 37-42) and (Paul & Elder, p. 11)

A. Outline the argument

1. What is the purpose of the article or book? What are the key questions addressed by the author?

2. What are the underlying claims made by the author? What evidence does he/she provide in support of these claims? (Identify each claim made by the author and the evidence used to support that specific claim.)

3. What is the author’s conclusion? Does the conclusion follow from the evidence provided? What are the implications of the conclusion if accepted?

B. Identify the structure of the argument

1. Does the author state his/her purpose, claims, and conclusions in a clear and logical manner?

2. Is it evident what the author is trying to accomplish?

3. Does the author introduce (intentionally or unintentionally) any logical fallacies?

4. Does the author attempt to sway the reader by omitting or providing insufficient attention to any particular evidence or points of view?

C. Examine biases

1. What are your biases? Are you inclined (before you begin reading) to agree or disagree with the author’s perspective?

a. Are there concepts being discussed that you need to understand before you can fully evaluate the author’s position?

b. Be wary of “egocentric” thinking (Paul & Elder, p. 21) – “It must be true because . . .

i. I believe it

ii. I want to believe it

iii. It is in my best interest to believe it

2. What is the author’s bias? What is his/her background, current position, etc?

D. Read for biases

1. Can you identify any unstated assumptions that underlie the author’s reasoning?

2. Be aware of the power of word choice.

VIII. Preparing a research paper or writing project

A. What is the purpose of your project?

B. What kind of question are you asking?

C. Who is your intended audience?

D. What do you already know (or think you know0 about your topic?

1. Write it down

2. Begin to “outline” arguments, points of view, facts, etc.

E. What do you need to learn about your project?

1. Where are the holes that need to be filled before you can complete the project/paper?

2. Develop a timeline for completion of your project. Include time to overcome unforeseen obstacles.

F. Where will you find the information you need?

1. Create a plan, involving “small” research steps

2. Identify sources of information. Evaluate the validity of the sources.

3. Identify new questions or points of view raised by your research.

G. Prepare your final paper/project

1. Be sure to proofread for typos and other inadvertent mistakes

2. Produce a professional-looking product

IX. Active reading (Alvarado, pp. 59-60)

A. Before you read, ask yourself: Why are you reading this material? (Go beyond, “because my professor told me I had to.”)

B. Preread: Flip through the chapter, article, or book. What are the major chapter or section headings? Can you identify key terms before you begin your reading? (Does the author identify them for you?)

C. Ask questions

1. Which terms are unfamiliar to you?

2. What concepts or arguments are most unclear?

3. What is the author’s purpose in writing this chapter, article?

4. Why is the professor asking you to read this particular information?

D. Review what you’ve read

1. Look up words you still don’t understand

2. Read unclear passages again

3. Discuss with your professor concepts or problems with which you’re still struggling

E. Test yourself. Better yet, study with a friend and test each other.

X. Active test taking (Alvarado, p. 61)

A. Preview the entire test

1. Read the directions

2. How many questions are there?

3. What is the structure of the test? Multiple choice, essay, fill-in-the-blank?

B. Ask for clarification

1. Are there directions that are unclear?

C. Bring a watch. How much time should you spend on each section or page?

D. Answer the easiest questions first.

E. Jot down what you do know next to tougher questions or problems.

F. Briefly outline what you want to say in an essay question

G. Before handing it in, reread your answers to essay questions to correct unintentional mistakes; quickly review the test for missing answers

SOURCES:

Alvarado, Sonya. Quick Coach Guide to Critical Thinking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 2008

Paul, Richard and Linda Elder. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2009.