Use of stored blood. Long ago, doctors drew a blood specimen from you as part of treating minor anemia. Unknown to you, the sample was stored. Now researchers plan to use stored samples from you and many other people to look for genetic factors that may influence anemia. It is no longer possible to ask your consent. Modern technology can read your entire genetic makeup from the blood sample.

(a) Do you think it violates the principle of informed consent to use your blood sample if your name is on it but you were not told that it might be saved and studied later?

(b) Suppose that your identity is not attached. The blood sample is known only to come from (say) "a 20-year-old white female being treated for anemia." Is it now OK to use the sample for research?

(c) Perhaps we should use biological materials such as blood samples only from patients who have agreed to allow the material to be stored for later use in research. It isn't possible to say in advance what kind of research, so this falls short of the usual standard for informed consent. Is it nonetheless acceptable, given complete confidentiality and the fact that using the sample can't physically harm the patient?